Saturated fat

Types of fats in food
See also

Saturated fat is fat that consists of triglycerides containing only saturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between the individual carbon atoms of the fatty acid chain. That is, the chain of carbon atoms is fully "saturated" with hydrogen atoms. There are many kinds of naturally occurring saturated fatty acids, which differ mainly in number of carbon atoms, from 3 carbons (propionic acid) to 36 (hexatriacontanoic acid).

Various fats contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Examples of foods containing a high proportion of saturated fat include animal fats such as cream, cheese, butter, and ghee; suet, tallow, lard, and fatty meats; as well as certain vegetable products such as coconut oil, cottonseed oil, palm kernel oil, chocolate, and many prepared foods.[1]

Contents

Fat profiles

While nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among food groups. Lauric and myristic acid are most commonly found in "tropical" oils (e.g., palm kernel, coconut) and dairy products. The saturated fat in meat, eggs, chocolate, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acid.

Saturated fat profile of common foods; Esterified fatty acids as percentage of total fat[2]
Food Lauric acid Myristic acid Palmitic acid Stearic acid
Coconut oil 47% 18% 9% 3%
Butter 3% 11% 29% 13%
Ground beef 0% 4% 26% 15%
Dark chocolate 0% 1% 34% 43%
Salmon 0% 1% 29% 3%
Eggs 0% 0.3% 27% 10%
Cashews 2% 1% 10% 7%
Soybean oil 0% 0% 11% 4%

Examples of saturated fatty acids

Main article: List of saturated fatty acids

Some common examples of fatty acids:

Association with diseases

Fats that are high in saturated fatty acids (including meat fats, milk fat, butter, lard, coconut oil, palm oil, and palm kernel oil) are commonly considered to be potentially less healthful than fats with a lower proportion of saturated fatty acids and higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids like olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocados, safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, and cottonseed oils.[6]

Cardiovascular disease

Main article: Saturated fat and cardiovascular disease controversy

Medical, heart-health, and governmental authorities advise that saturated fat is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD).[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]

Numerous systematic reviews have examined the relationship between saturated fat and cardiovascular disease:

Systematic review Relationship between cardiovascular disease and saturated fatty acids (SFA)
Mozaffarian, 2010[19] 19% reduction in CHD events by substituting polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
Siri-Tarino, 2010[20] insignificant
Danaei, 2009[21] 1-5% additional IHD mortality risk for each 1% calories exchanging PUFA for SFA
Mente, 2009[22] insignificant
Mozaffarian, 2009[23] Reduced risk associated with monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), PUFA, and SFA compared with trans-fatty acids (TFA)
Skeaff, 2009[24] reduced events by substituting PUFA
Jakobsen, 2009[25] 5% exchange of SFA for PUFA: 13% decrease events, 26% decrease deaths
Van Horn, 2008[26] 25-35% fats but <7% SFA and TFA reduces risk
Chanu, 2003[27] significant in longer term
Hooper, 2001[28] reducing total fat, SFA or cholesterol intake reduced events by 16% and deaths by 9%. Longer-term trials led to 24% reduction
Hu, 1999[29] exchanging SFA for nuts gave 45% reduction
Truswell, 1994[30] decrease SFA and cholesterol intake, partial replacement with PUFA: 6% reduced deaths, 13% reduced events

While many studies have found that including polyunsaturated fats in the diet in place of saturated fats produces more beneficial CVD outcomes, the effects of substituting monounsaturated fats or carbohydrates are unclear.[31][32] Current dietary advice recommends limiting saturated fats, though the scientific basis and usefulness of these recommendations has been questioned. Accurso et al. attribute the contradictory findings to the failure to distinguish between replacing saturated fats with either unsaturated fats or carbohydrates and suggest that while the former have recognized health benefits, "Replacement of saturated fat with carbohydrate, however, is almost always deleterious."[33] Frank Hu also believes that refined carbohydrates are a greater health risk than saturated fats, particularly for obese and sedentary populations, recommending a low intake of saturated and partially hydrogenated fats rather than a blanket recommendation to reduce total fat intake.[34]

Dyslipidemia

See also: Lipid hypothesis

The consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk factor for some types of cardiovascular disease.[35][36][37][38][39]

There are strong, consistent, and graded relationships between saturated fat intake, blood cholesterol levels, and the mass occurrence of cardiovascular disease. The relationships are accepted as causal.[40][41] Abnormal blood lipid levels, that is high total cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides, high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL, "bad" cholesterol) or low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, "good" cholesterol) cholesterol all increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.[17]

Meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels.[42] High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.[43][44] However, other indicators measuring cholesterol such as high total/HDL cholesterol ratio are more predictive than total serum cholesterol.[44] In a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 (related to LDL and HDL, respectively) ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors.[45] There are other pathways involving obesity, triglyceride levels, insulin sensitivity, endothelial function, and thrombogenicity, among others, that play a role in CVD, although it seems, in the absence of an adverse blood lipid profile, the other known risk factors have only a weak atherogenic effect.[46] Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels.[47]

Cancer

Breast cancer

Main article: Epidemiology and etiology of breast cancer#Specific dietary fatty acids

A meta-analysis published in 2003 found a significant positive relationship in both control and cohort studies between saturated fat and breast cancer.[48] However two subsequent reviews have found weak or insignificant associations of saturated fat intake and breast cancer risk,[49][50] and note the prevalence of confounding factors.[51][49]

Colorectal cancer

A systematic literature review published by the World Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute for Cancer Research in 2007 found limited but consistent evidence for a positive relationship between animal fat and colorectal cancer.[52]

Ovarian cancer

A meta-analysis published in 2001 found a statistically significant positive relationship between saturated fat and ovarian cancer.[53]

Prostate cancer

Further information: Prostate cancer#Oils and fatty acids

Some researchers have indicated that serum myristic acid[54][55] and palmitic acid[55] and dietary myristic[56] and palmitic[56] saturated fatty acids and serum palmitic combined with alpha-tocopherol supplementation[54] are associated with increased risk of prostate cancer in a dose-dependent manner. These associations may, however, reflect differences in intake or metabolism of these fatty acids between the precancer cases and controls, rather than being an actual cause.[55]

Small intestine cancer

A prospective study of data from the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study explained cancer of the small intestine may be partly correlated with saturated fat intake.[57]

Bones

Mounting evidence indicates that the amount and type of fat in the diet can have important effects on bone health. Most of this evidence is derived from animal studies. The data from one study indicated that bone mineral density is negatively associated with saturated fat intake, and that men may be particularly vulnerable.[58]

Dietary recommendations

Recommendations to reduce or limit dietary intake of saturated fats are made by Health Canada,[59] the US Department of Health and Human Services,[60] the UK Food Standards Agency,[61] the Australian Department of Health and Aging,[62] the Singapore Government Health Promotion Board,[63] the Indian Government Citizens Health Portal,[64] the New Zealand Ministry of Health,[65] the Food and Drugs Board Ghana,[66] the Republic of Guyana Ministry of Health,[67] and Hong Kong's Centre for Food Safety.[68]

A 2004 statement released by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) determined that "Americans need to continue working to reduce saturated fat intake…"[69] In addition, reviews by the American Heart Association led the Association to recommend reducing saturated fat intake to less than 7% of total calories according to its 2006 recommendations.[70][71] This concurs with similar conclusions made by the US Department of Health and Human Services, which determined that reduction in saturated fat consumption would positively affect health and reduce the prevalence of heart disease.[72]

In 2003, the World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) expert consultation report concluded that "intake of saturated fatty acids is directly related to cardiovascular risk. The traditional target is to restrict the intake of saturated fatty acids to less than 10% of daily energy intake and less than 7% for high-risk groups. If populations are consuming less than 10%, they should not increase that level of intake. Within these limits, intake of foods rich in myristic and palmitic acids should be replaced by fats with a lower content of these particular fatty acids. In developing countries, however, where energy intake for some population groups may be inadequate, energy expenditure is high and body fat stores are low (BMI <18.5 kg/m2). The amount and quality of fat supply has to be considered keeping in mind the need to meet energy requirements. Specific sources of saturated fat, such as coconut and palm oil, provide low-cost energy and may be an important source of energy for the poor."[73]

Dr. German and Dr. Dillard of University of California and Nestle Research Center in Switzerland, in their 2004 review, pointed out that "no lower safe limit of specific saturated fatty acid intakes has been identified" and recommended that the influence of varying saturated fatty acid intakes against a background of different individual lifestyles and genetic backgrounds should be the focus in future studies.[74]

Blanket recommendations to lower saturated fat were criticized at a 2010 conference debate of the American Dietetic Association for focusing too narrowly on reducing saturated fats rather than emphasizing increased consumption of healthy fats and unrefined carbohydrates. Concern was expressed over the health risks of replacing saturated fats in the diet with refined carbohydrates, which carry a high risk of obesity and heart disease, particularly at the expense of polyunsaturated fats which may have health benefits. None of the panelists recommended heavy consumption of saturated fats, emphasizing instead the importance of overall dietary quality to cardiovascular health.[75]

Molecular description

 It should be noted, as this is the defining factor of saturated fats, that the two-dimensional illustration has implicit hydrogens bonded to each of the carbon atoms in the polycarbon tail of the myristic acid molecule (there are 13 carbons in the tail, 14 carbons in the entire molecule).

Carbon atoms are also implicitly drawn, as they are portrayed as intersections between two straight lines. "Saturated," in general, refers to a maximum number of hydrogens bonded to each carbon of the polycarbon tail as allowed by the Octet Rule. This also means that only single bonds (sigma bonds) will be present between adjacent carbon atoms of the tail.

See also

References

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Further reading

Types of lipids
General
Geometry
Fatty acids
Phospholipids
Cholesterol/steroids
Sphingolipids
Eicosanoids
biochemical families: prot · nucl · carb (glpr, alco, glys) · lipd (fata/i, phld, strd, gllp, eico) · amac/i · ncbs/i · ttpy/i